Treatment of wastewater for reuse purposes Research Paper

Treatment of wastewater for reuse purposes - Research Paper Example Wastewater can be filter and treated to be from all of the containments or some of the containments. Wastewater can be utilized in many applications. Wastewater can be utilized in the agriculture in both the treated and untreated forms. Untreated wastewater is rich is macro nutrients and thus the crops easily in untreated wastewater but it is not environmentally safe as it posses danger to the biodiversity of region. The chemical in the untreated wastewater can easily enter into the food chain and thus can harm the human life. Treated wastewater is not only goof for the plants but also for the environment. Wastewater can also be utilized for the industrial purposes. It can be utilized to cool down the internal combustion engines that generate power in the power plants and to reduce the temperature of the steam in the steam turbine generators. Introduction The increase in the population of the world proposed many problems. One of the major problems is the shortening in the supply of p ortable water. The fresh water sources are depleting as the population is increasing. On the other hand, the natural hydrologic cycle is much affected by the impact of human activity. One way to reduce the burden on the fresh water resources is to reuse the wastewater after treating it and then utilizing it for various purposes. The process of treating the wastewater not only makes the water safe of the biological environment but also for the industrial purposes. Today, an average home consumes as much water in a month that our ancestors have used in years. The modern water utility habits in urban regions made some parts of the world to remain in the water stressed regions. Most of the rivers in the world are unable to reach the oceans due to the heavy human burden on the rivers. Water reuse is the only key to reduce the impact on the portable water resources in the world. There are several techniques to treat the waste water. All the evolved processes have different economic aspect s. The basic sewerage wastewater treatment system ascorbic digestion method consumes less energy and utilizes the natural biotic microorganisms to make the water safe for the environment. How in order to attain the drinkable quality, it undergoes different other steps like the disinfection, sedimentation filtration, filtration, etc. The water quality is considered to be environmentally safe after ascorbic digestion and can be used for the irrigation purposes. The water quality produced thus is rich in nutrients that are made during the breakdown of the sewage wastes and thus good for the agriculture (Drechsel, Scott, Raschid-Sally, Redwood & Bahri, 2009). In urban localities this type of water is safe after disinfection it and removing slug from it. This water is safe for drinking after undergoing different processes but most people prefer not to take this water as the primary drinkable water. It is most utilized to flush the toilets and for laundry purposes (Tchobanoglous & Burton, 2003). Water treatment can be 100 percent efficient or more than 100 percent. It means that the

Andrew Jackson Campaign Speech of 1828 Essay Example for Free

Andrew Jackson Campaign Speech of 1828 Essay My fellow Americans, the upcoming national elections present a very important choice. We can forge a â€Å"true† representative democracy for the first time in history, and be led by our directly elected leaders. Or we can continue to live in an aristocratic republic run by over-educated elitists who are not beholden to the will of the people, but only to themselves. As you all know, three years ago I won the popular vote for President, but was denied the office because of a â€Å"corrupt bargain† between the dishonorable Henry Clay and President Adams. The people’s choice was disregarded by the elite in power. As a result, I immediately resigned from the Senate and returned to Tennessee, where the legislature immediately nominated me for President again. I have spent the last three years preparing to right this terrible wrong and take back the people’s power to choose their own leaders. My opponent Mr. Adams dismisses me as a â€Å"military chieftain. † I have fought two wars for this country, and I am proud of it. I think one of the most important qualifications a President should have is a military background. We were invaded by the British only 15 years ago. That enemy is still in the Canadas agitating Indians to attack us, and waiting for another chance to invade. We have foreign enemies at our every border. Don’t forget the Spanish forces just to the south in Florida, and Mexico to the west, and Indians constantly raiding settlements all along the frontiers. These foreign threats are many and dire, and we need a President who has the experience to defend our nation against them. There are threats to our nation from within as well. The Second National Bank is a threat to our economic well-being. President Adams and Vice-president Clay both support the bank claiming that it provides stability. I say it does great harm to the average American. It is a financial monopoly controlled by a few wealthy easterners. It controls the credit for the entire country, prints paper money of dubious worth, and it is just plain unconstitutional. Out west thousands of ordinary shop keepers, millers, farmers and other business owners cannot get the currency and the loans they need to run their concerns. How do you develop and grow the economy of a new state without currency, or worse yet, with paper currency of dubious worth? I say let us do away with all paper money, I do not trust it. Gold and Silver coin have intrinsic and eternal value, paper does not. We should also rely on our local and state banks, run by the people who live in and understand our communities, to control the currency needed for commerce, not some faceless, monopolistic national bank. Another threat from within are the abolitionists. They care about one issue only, and would tear the nation apart to get their way. Slavery is necessary to the economy of the south. If we outlaw it, we will make criminals of thousands of slave owners overnight, and collapse all of the southern states’ economies. How will southern families feed and clothe themselves without their labor force? I say let the people and their states decide this issue for themselves. Many northern states have already outlawed slavery, and one day the southern states may follow. You cannot force a cultural change like this on people; you must let them come to it in their own way and time. That is the nature of democracy. President Adams is afraid of internal threats as well. His biggest fear is YOU! The people of this nation, the ordinary citizens of the United States are the gravest threat he faces. Our President doesn’t trust us. To him, we are the unwashed, ignorant masses who, given the chance, would run the country into the ground. The president has stated many times that he believes his precious republic will soon â€Å"degenerate into democracy; that government of the people will become government by the people. † I say it’s about time. I say â€Å"we the people† built this nation. We have marched across the continent, scratching out a living, and burying our children along the way to do it. I say â€Å"we the people† understand better than anyone what it takes to make this nation grow and prosper. I trust the common people of this nation, because I am one of the common people. I am not yet another wealthy land owner from Virginia, nor am I an aristocratic lawyer from Massachusetts. I am a just an old Indian fighter from Tennessee. I believe â€Å"we the people† who have sacrificed the most for this great nation have earned the right to govern it. But I need your help to make this happen. Already, the new states are entering the union with few restrictions on the vote. This has caused many the old states to change their ways as well. Eighteen of our states now choose their electors by popular vote, while only six still allow the legislature to choose their representatives for them. I urge you all to go to the polls on Election Day. With this election we can finally take back power from the old aristocracy. We can establish the legitimacy of majority rule based upon direct voting for candidates by the electorate, and guarantee preservation of the Union, with states rights as the fundamental basis of American liberty. This is the dawn of a new day for democracy and modern American politics. Please vote on Election Day. Thank you.

Analysis of Gaming Industry Consumers

Analysis of Gaming Industry Consumers Muhammad Zafar   Ã‚   Introduction Online games are played online unlike the traditional pc and consoles games where players play against each other (Hilton 2006). This had a huge impact on games DFC intelligence (2006) estimated that the total online games revenue have grown from $3.4 billion in 2005 to over $13 billion in 2011. There are new media elements for the consumers now use to represent their expressions and communications in the online games some examples are online avatars, accessories of the avatars, decorative stuffs like furniture, background music, skins and fancy weapons used in online games (V. Lehdonvirta 2009). Also people who cant buy expensive car and likes to modify cars and likes to drive modified cars in video games buy games like Gran Turismo, Sega GT, Metropolis Street Racer, or Need for Speed Underground, also people build a virtual dream life in games like The Sims, Habbo Hotel, or Second Life or they even want to enhance their digital lives by buying rare and expensive magical artefacts in games like Morrowind, Everquest, or World of Warcraft to get connected with other players or to show others their digital valuables (Lindstrom, 2001; Nelson, 2002). The combined result is that consumers now relate themselves to digitally simulated consumption experiences. However digital virtual consumption is just materialized substance. Its popularity therefore defies the premises of utility-based explanations of consumer behaviour like a virtual car cannot take you to work; a virtual home does not keep you warm and sheltered (Castronova, 2003). Digital Items Social media is the main source of advertising through Facebook and Twitter. These sites produce high revenue for the companies but to find alternate gaming companies have now started building revenues of selling digital items to their consumers (H.S. Kang, 2003). Consumers now use these new media elements known as digital items to represent, communicate and express themselves with other online members. There are two types of digital items, 2d/3d digital items and musical digital format like songs and music. In this article the focus is on self representation through digital items and aesthetic value. Some of the common examples of digital items are digital avatars, their accessories such as clothes, shoes and hats, decorative skins and items for virtual real life games like furniture, painting, wallpapers and background skins. Usually the prices of digital items are ranges between to a few pennies to a high ranged pound price depending on the item and its value, some limited items a re very high ranged. Consumers use digital items to represent their online users. They normally take an interest in a virtual world by controlling their avatar, a character that speaks to them in the virtual environment (V. Lehdonvirta, 2005). Avatars are usually two-dimensional or three-dimensional graphical figures that represent the consumers online self (S. Webb, 2001). Consumers have more hold over avatars based interactions and can customize their avatar in a wide range of physical features and they are also willing to buy avatar features (Jin, 2009). It also enhances users vivid experiences of participants when they have an active control on the virtual environment through their digital avatars which makes them feel that they are a part of the virtual world with other users (Lehdonvirta et al., 2009; Martin, 2008, Animesh et al., 2011). Social Identity The emotional value of an advanced digital item depends essentially on what it would seem that and the degree to which marketers identify with it and utilize it in their correspondence with the consumers (A.H. Huang, D.C. Yen, X. Zhang, 2008). The two factors which are identifying as emotional value are the aesthetics and the playfulness which connects the consumers to their digital avatar. Consumers buys digital products is depends in a manner that how they view themselves or wishes to be viewed by other members. Aside from their effective utility, items have typical or prominent utilization values. The sorts of computerized things one uses additionally help to characterize the adopters group of friends. For social esteem, it can be recognized into two elements: self-image expression and relationship support. All in all through their fantasies, consumers truly wish into reality the encounters that they therefore expend. The media Games and Culture all in all, including computerized virtual spaces, are themselves subject to showcase mechanisms (Kline, Dyer-Witheford, and de Peuter, 2003). The act of buying a car (in a material sense) is in reality genuine; that is, it is acknowledged and realized in an execution of an earlier stare off into space in the psyche of a consumer. The improvement of the computerized virtual (for instance, a computer game, like World of Warcraft), in any case, may welcome a person to purchase a virtual enchantment staff. Consumers who buy virtual and digitalized items such as a magic staff is indeed real for them when they imagine it, so here we have an instrument for the realization of unique customer fantasy further than what is likely, that is accessible in the material mercantile centre (Proulx and Latzko-Toth, 2000). One of the examples of a game which allows consumers to utilize their fantasies through online platform in a game is The Sims (Consalvo, 2003). In the Sims is a game in which the user simulates a virtual life. First they create a Sims likely known as digital avatar and then they choose types of clothing and lifestyle for it and later build a house and make family. Then there is Grand theft Auto in which users who are more towards violence and American criminal lifestyle in this game user first create a character in multiplayer mode and then progress through missions and other multiplayer jobs with your online friends it is an open world game which itself is a reflection of social drama. Self-representation desire may, thusly, be improved by individual control as a persons certainty about his or her capacity, i.e., self-adequacy, to show a favoured image (Dà ¶ring 2002). The impact of online introduction self-adequacy on the desire for online self-representation can be clarified by s ocial subjective hypothesis (Bandura, 2001). It places that human conduct is persistently and widely self-managed. Online Community An online group comprises of (1) individuals, who cooperate with each other in the group; (2) reason, to give motivation to clients to take part in groups; (3) approaches, to make guidelines, conventions, and laws to guide clients conduct; and (4) PC frameworks, to bolster and intercede social association and encourage a feeling of fellowship   (Preece, 2000). An online games community is characterized as a gathering of users who cooperate with each other by means of Internet, they create a fantasy role and build up an online relationship among users, share regular interests, and enjoy their requirement for excitement by assuming their own particular virtual parts (Hsu and Lu, 2007 and Teng, in press). Origin in Asia, for instance, is a hot web based amusement that permits users to accept a virtual part to join daring exercises on the internet. In the Lineage people group, users frequently create strong attachment and endeavour to accomplish shared objectives, including overco ming a foe nation. When a player and their team mates gets a powerful item or a high skill, the players then interact with the opponent team and the opponents responds with a counter attack or runs away, these kinds of interactions have been found to have a ample impact on the success of online games since an arrangement of a more than a few successions of collaboration is in actuality an account, which can be utilized to build a play interest (Choi Kim, 2004). From the consumer view of perspective through practical observations the psychological feeling of being there and benefit instruments, for example, reasonableness, security and motivating force are exceptionally critical concerns (Chen and Yen, 2004). Motivation If a user will be extremely submerged in a virtual diversion group (understanding stream) on the off chance that he or she have accomplished coordinating aptitudes (like propelled weapons) against high players. In particular, high character skill (low test) will shrink a players desire to additionally accomplish even progressed virtual things as his or her characters general capability will as of now be better than that of others, and the other way around. Furthermore, with the expansion in the general skill of the characters possessed by a player, he or she may like to challenge propelled PC controlled players for picking up an incredible feeling of accomplishment (Kim, Oh and Lee, 2005). By this behaviour consumers are more anticipated in buying more digital items to progress further more in the game and also its an achievement for them to show other users that how far the progressed. Players with inherent inspiration may see more fun under the high vulnerability condition that makes them to feel more excitement. Then again, outwardly persuaded players may see less exchange cost when exchanging the thing with high resource specificity. Ordinarily, individuals see more exchange cost when the high resource specificity condition is given in the exchange in light of the confinement of the advantage (O. E. Williamson, 1991). Digital games also motivate players to learn new stuff about the world and culture it helps them to grow more knowledge of skills (Dickey, 2006). It is also been discussed before that digital games helps a user to develop problem solving skills (Annetta, 2008). Furthermore, motivation starts to conduct and decides its course and power. Along these lines, the desire for online self-representation fills in as an inspiration that prompts to practices, for example, the buying of digital items that empower online self-representation (Van der Heijden 200 4). Motivation likewise decides asset designation for various practices. Based on their desire for online self-representation, individuals may allocate assets toward the buying of digital items for self-representation and expend exertion toward this objective (Latham and Pinder 2005). Negations While there are positive effects of online gaming and digital world there are also some negative effects also which are due to the genre of a game like if a game is genre is violence this can relate to an aggressive outcome for the user (Anderson Bushman, 2001). Although online games recreations frequently contain comparable demonstrations of violence, recent narrative confirmation has proposed another negative behavioural impact that these games may represent that of addiction (Jansz, 2005). In 2005 The Washington Post reports that 10 people died in Korea as a result of extreme game play, also a person who was found dead in an internet cafe after continuously playing 50 hours taking very few breaks (Khazan, 2006). An individuals identity is a moderately stable antecedent of conduct in a miniaturized scale level, as it shows a persisting style of ones way of thinking, feeling, and acting in various circumstances (Stevens, 2003). Ritualized media utilize was associated with impression of imminence to the medium and convenience, substantial media users will probably proceed with their media utilize paying little reverence to the content (Huh 2004). Online game addiction is known as process addiction which is a specific type of addiction defined as behaviour enslavement which is similar to obsessive gambling and shopping. Users who are addicted play online games to form social relationship as they do to progress through the ladder, virtual relationships is more desirable to them rather than face to face interactions thats why they have their own virtual world in which their fictional digital avatar or character is real for them and they represent that as themselves to other users (Yee, 2006). Conclusion So the conclusion is that how marketers make consumers relate to games avatars and buy digital items from their real money which are the in game avatars clothing and accessories   to make it look good and show it to other users. Some of the games like Counter Strike and other combat multiplayer games have skins for the guns and knives which are bought from the real money. People now live in a digital world where they want to show themselves to others which they cant do in real life and have less confidence to even talk and socialize with others. So the developers and the marketers of the games have brought them digitized virtual reality world where they can socialize with confidence. This is a consumer behaviour theory that marketers provide consumers a game in which they can do what they imagine to do in the real world but could not do it, this is also knows as aesthetic drama. But for the consumers this all real for them the imagination and fantasy is real thats what motivates them to buy digital items in games. Self motivation is the thing which the marketers target a person because in games if a user is winning a lot of games against stronger opponents and getting higher ranked achievements through games it self-motivates them to buy in game items like background music, wallpapers, skins, digital avatar accessories and other items related to the game. This whole essay is about self-representation through a consumers view of mind and their perspective that how a game can be real to them and connects mentally and emotionally to them and how marketers motivates their desires to play more and be involve more in buying in games items and materials which encourages them to progress further. From theories and research its been proved that online gaming is on a rise and now its more advance through mobile phone games and other portable consoles and there is a major increase in online gamers who are playing online games with other players and take it is a challenge. This is the kind of motivation marketers look forward for. References Yee, N. (2006). Motivations for play in online games. CyberPsychology behavior, 9(6), 772-775. Kim, H. W., Gupta, S., Koh, J. (2011). Investigating the intention to purchase digital items in social networking communities: A customer value perspective. Information Management, 48(6), 228-234. Molesworth, M., Denegri-Knott, J. (2007). Digital play and the actualization of the consumer imagination. Games and Culture, 2(2), 114-133. Huang, E. (2012). Online experiences and virtual goods purchase intention. Internet Research, 22(3), 252-274. Hsu, C. L., Lu, H. P. (2007). Consumer behavior in online game communities: A motivational factor perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(3), 1642-1659. Lee, M. C., Tsai, T. R. (2010). What drives people to continue to play online games? An extension of technology model and theory of planned behavior. Intl. journal of human-computer interaction, 26(6), 601-620. Wu, J. H., Wang, S. C., Tsai, H. H. (2010). Falling in love with online games: The uses and gratifications perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1862-1871. Guo, Y., Barnes, S. (2007). Why people buy virtual items in virtual worlds with real money. ACM Sigmis Database, 38(4), 69-76. Choi, B., Lee, I., Lee, K., Jung, S., Park, S., Kim, J. (2007, January). The effects of users motivation on their perception to trading systems of digital content accessories: Focusing on trading items in online games. In System Sciences, 2007. HICSS 2007. 40th Annual Hawaii International Conference on (pp. 161-161). IEEE. Yang, Y. T. C. (2012). Building virtual cities, inspiring intelligent citizens: Digital games for developing students problem solving and learning motivation. Computers Education, 59(2), 365-377. Kim, H. W., Chan, H. C., Kankanhalli, A. (2012). What motivates people to purchase digital items on virtual community websites? The desire for online self-presentation. Information systems research, 23(4), 1232-1245. Huh, S., Bowman, N. D. (2008). Perception and addiction of online games as a function of personality traits. Journal of Media Psychology, 13(2), 1-31.

media :: essays research papers

Since the effects of the media increased over people, the aim of the media has gone into an alteration. The morals of the media changed and a huge conflict became into existence between the morals in past and now. As all over the world in Turkey, ethics of the media changed after the media bosses have caught it. Media must be objective, impartial, and balanced, but because of the media bosses, it changed its ethics. The first purpose of media must be objectivity, but media rarely objective while reporting or researching information. Media’s objectivity is filtered and censored by the media owners, advertisers, newsmakers, news sharpers, and the pressure groups. All of the affect media while its doing its job. Media’s job is to inform. Because of the filters of media, it usually uses for propaganda, having profit and power. Many people think media is the most powerful means for propaganda. Lord Beaverbrook (1879-1964), who is owner of the Daily Express and founder of The Sun, and he used his newspaper for entirely for propaganda without taking into consideration of the purposes of media (Watson, 84). Media works same in Turkey as the world. The bosses, who have newspapers and television channels, use them for their propaganda. Moreover, this propaganda works very well because they have power over the people and having amounts of profit owing to media. Media is mass communication, a connection all over the world that informs, entertains, and influences people. It is powerful because most people talk about what they see on the news. Therefore, we can easily say media primarily control people’s opinion, and beliefs. Due to this, media must do its job impartially. In addition to this, the basic criteria of the media would be always say truth. On the other hand, the anxiety of rating and getting power entails media taking sides. It would seem that the media is using for propaganda and laissez-faire, besides both of them obtains to control the people, and control means power (Watson, 86). This control over the people does not look down on because this control orientates the people as the media barons wishes. Like the example of the Italy. The effects of media can straightforwardly see in Italy. Silvio Berlusconi’s political party, which shaped newly, urge into authority in Italy by the hold up of the Berlusconi’s me dia empire. By the support of his media empire Berlusconi became prime minister of Italy as in Orson Welles’ classical film Citizen Kane, which is about the dream of political officer, eluded John Foster Kane (Watson, 85).

Potential Impact of Blogs on Communication Essays -- Internet Online C

The Potential Impact of Blogs on Communication The advent of weblogs as instruments of Web-based conversation shall surely increase the exchange of news-related and academic information; probably not to the extent that books or newspapers have, but certainly in an open and accessible way. Gradually as they gain in popularity, blogs shall transform the field of journalism from one of complacent reporting to a more competitive and less elitist industry. Motivated individuals, with the use of their personal blogs, shall weigh in on important and controversial topics related to politics and social issues. Similarly, separated networks of academics shall benefit from more convenient access in communicating their ideas across long distances, giving them greater opportunities to organize large collaborative projects. Although books and libraries shall continue to be the preferred and overwhelming choice of students, educators, and interested persons as a place for acquiring knowledge, weblogs, through the global network called the I nternet, shall bring people ever closer together to inform the general public and to exchange technical and academic ideas. The influence that blogging shall have on the news industry and on academia should, for the sake of objectivity, be placed in comparison with the advent of mechanized printing. Both these technologies (i.e. blogs and printing) have made general news coverage and advanced scholarship related to professional and academic disciplines more readily available than what was the case before their creation. Prior to the invention of moveable type and the printing press, only a small number of trained scribes and privileged aristocrats knew how to write. Books took painstaking effort ... ...ve understanding about the social and physical sciences shall be fostered by this new on-line forum. Works Cited Mumford, Lewis. "The Invention of the Printing Press." Communication in History : Technology, Culture, Society. Ed. Crowley, David and Paul Heyer. Pearson Education. pp. 93-97. Lasica, J.D. "Blogging as a Form of Journalism." We've Got Blog. Ed. Rodzvilla, John. USA: Perseus Publishing, 2002. 163-71. Pryor, Larry. "A Weblog sharpens journalism students' skills." Nieman Reports. Vol. 57, Iss. 3. pg. 97. Regan, Tom. "Weblogs threaten and inform traditional journalism." Nieman Reports. Vol. 57, Iss. 3: pg. 68. Reynolds, Glenn Harlan. "Weblogs and journalism: Back to the future?" Nieman Reports. Vol. 57, Iss. 3: pg. 81. Duke University. Center for Instructional Technology.

The Importance of Sex Education Essays -- Children Sex Ed Youth Educ

Children and young adults today distinguish right from wrong based on their previous knowledge. The education they receive plays a major role in the way they make decisions. Sex is a controversial topic brought up frequently throughout a child's life. Based on the way it is taught, the child makes decisions that may forever change his or her life. (Sex Education That 3) Although it is often opposed, the two most essential ways children learn about sex today is the education they receive at home and at school. The relationship and behavior between children and their parents is crucial to the ways these children shape their own sexual ideas and values A child who perceives his relationship to his parents as supportive and close, is more likely to sexually behave in a way approved by his or her parents than a child brought up in an unhealthy environment. (Single-Sex Education 1) Furthermore, communication is more effective in a loving family relationship, and a child who feels loved generally feels good about his or her general outlook on sex. (Straight Talk About 56) Along with normal education, sex education must progress and grow with the individual child. Often, there is a real communication barrier between parents and children when it comes to talking about sex. (Sex Education That 2 ) The children sometimes feel awkward asking parents personal questions. In numerous situations, kids are left with many unanswered questions. A small number of adults know for sure what their kids think about sex, or do not know their son's or daughter's sexual experiences. (Choosing Virginity 68 )Parents frequently wish to talk to their children but are sometimes too ashamed or just too ignorant. Yet, adults still do not seek wa... ...fected. (Single Sex Education 5)They also argue that a million teenage girls get pregnant each year and at least half of these girls have an abortion. (Virgin Cool 71) The government hasn't yet taken its case anywhere, but will most likely in the years to come. Ultimately, it is up to the children to decide how he or she interprets the sex education of which they receive. (Straight Talk About 45) The most effective deterrents include a strong self-esteem, the ability to make informed choices, and meaningful options that give young people futures worth protecting and healthy ways to protect their identity. (Sexual Values 29) The choices they make will forever impact their lives. The controversy of sex education will, as well, forever stay the same. Whether at home or at school, children will always be faced with many tough decisions to make. (Sex Education That 45)

Stylistic Potential of the English Noun

STYLISTIC POTENTIAL OF THE ENGLISH NOUN Table of Contents Introduction-3 Chapter One. Stylistic resources of grammatical units on the basis of the English Noun -6 1. 1 Functions of the language and connotative meanings-7 1. 2 Grammatical Stylistics and Stylistic Grammar-9 1. 3 The meaning of the grammatical form-10 1. 4 Noun in different functional styles -10 1. 5 Stylistic potential of the English noun-11 1. 5. 1 Stylistic potential of the category of gender-11 1. 5. 2 Stylistic potential of the category of number-26 1. 5. Stylistic potential of the category of case-30 1. 5. 4 Stylistic potential of the category of article determination-34 Chapter Two. Analysis of examples taken from fiction on the basis of considered theoretical phenomena-42 2. 1 Analysis of the examples regarding the category of gender-43 2. 2 Analysis of the examples regarding the category of number-53 2. 3 Analysis of the examples regarding the category of case-55 2. 4 Analysis of the examples regarding the cate gory of article determination -59 Conclusions-66 Reference list-69 Introduction Nowadays learning a foreign language implies its active practical mastering, what, in its turn, is quite impossible to do grasping just the system of a language, its standard grammar, language factors which correspond only to the literary norms. Do we always stick to the rules while speaking in our native language? The answer will be no. Why do we break them? By doing this deliberately we may express our attitude to what we are saying. We must â€Å"know the grammar† to make effective word and stylistic choices when we speak and write. At the same time, breaking grammar â€Å"rules† or conventions can be appropriate when rhetorical considerations of audience and purpose call for it. For example, we don't use the same â€Å"grammar† to write an Instant Message as we do to write an English paper. So this aspect of learning any language should not be neglected. The approach that would be more effective in this case is functional. Functions of the language are indissolubly connected with the usage of any of its elements. In other words, the emergence of connotative meanings depends on the functions of the language. The functional approach requires first of all revealing stylistic resources of the language units of its different levels including the grammatical ones. The latter are the object of the new branch of linguastylistics Grammatical Stylistics which basic aim implies study of stylistic means (both expressive and functional) of grammatical units. It can be subdivided into morphological and syntactical one. If the stylistic means of Syntax are not usually cast upon doubt, those of Morphology on the contrary are. In the project there was made an attempt to demonstrate that the reason for this is the result of insufficient study. The other objectives of the present work are: to consider, compare different points of view of linguists concerning the object of study; to organize the material according four nounal categories; to show the stylistic purpose of the usage of studied phenomena; to illustrate connotative meanings of the considered grammatical forms; to put the considered theory into practice. As to the methods used in the project, the following ones have been applied: comparative (there was made an attempt to consider different linguists’ opinions concerning certain linguistic phenomena); analytical (on considering 36 literal texts there were picked up plenty of examples, that were organized according four nounal categories and analyzed basing on the research made in the theoretical part). In the thesis there was made an ttempt to organize the material on the stylistic potential of the English Noun considering the following four nounal categories: the category of gender, the category of number, the category of case and the category of article determination. This work consists of two chapters. The first one deals with the functional approach to learning a foreign language, with the relatively new science Grammatical Stylistic. The purpose of this chapter is to reveal what has caused its appearing by considering different opinions of linguists and to illustrate the s tylistic potential of the English Noun on the basis of some grammatical categories. There were considered rules concerning certain linguistic phenomena, but most of the work is focused on what causes their violation (cases of transposition, neutralization). All the linguistic phenomena discussed in this chapter are illustrated in the second one by means of about 200 cases that have been taken from the works that belong to the belles-lettres style (tales, poetry, short stories) written by such famous English and American writers of 18-20 centuries as Blake W. , ColeridgeS. T. , Munro H. , Poe A. A. , Hemingway E. , Salinger J. D, etc. The aim of this chapter is to put the considered theory into practice showing the way the phenomena have been dealt with work out. The examples are organized also according the four nounal categories mentioned above in the following way: Examples regarding the category of gender (2. 1) (Here we distinguish two groups: (1)A neuter noun used as feminine; (2)A neuter noun used as masculine, explaining the purpose of changing the gender); Examples regarding the category of number (2. ) (In this paragraph we consider some cases when proper, abstract, material nouns are used in the plural form); Examples regarding the category of case (2. 3) (Here we consider cases when inanimate nouns take the s-genitive); Examples regarding the category of article determination (2. 4)(in this paragraph we consider cases when the article is used in the linguistic environment that is alien to it). The analysis is supported by the conclusions after each paragraph. Cha pter One Stylistic Resources of the grammatical units on the basis of the English Noun All the linguistic phenomena we consider in the presented work are the subject of a relatively new science that is Stylistic Morphology. The purpose of this chapter is to reveal what have caused its appearing by considering different opinions of linguists and to illustrate the stylistic potential of the English Noun on the basis of some grammatical categories. The chapter starts with an effective approach in mastering a foreign language, namely with the functional one. Paragraph 1. 1 also illustrates the relationship between connotative meanings and functions of the language. Paragraph 1. is devoted to the appearance of Grammatical Stylistics (Stylistic Grammar), its subdivision and contrary judgments concerning its importance. Then attention is paid to the meaning of the grammatical form and to the notion of transposition. In the subsequent part of the chapter there was made an attempt to organize the material on the stylistic potential of the English noun considering the following nounal categories: the category of gender (1. 5. 1); the category of number (1. 5. 2); the category of case (1. 5. 3); the category of article determination (1. 5. 3). 1. 1 Functions of the language and connotative meanings. Nowadays learning a foreign language implies its active practical mastering. What in its turn is quite impossible to do grasping just the system of a language, its standard grammar, language factors which correspond only to the literary norms. The approach that would be more effective in our case is a functional one. More and more linguists come to agree with it today. The Russian linguist Kojina M. [1] said: The indispensable attention to the peculiarities of the usage of language means is the most necessary condition and the most effective method of teaching (the Russian linguist M. Kojina) This statement requires a deep research in the stylistic usage of language means, taking into consideration both expressive and functional nature of stylistic phenomena. Functions of the language are indissolubly connected with the usage of any of its elements. In other words, the emergence of connotative meanings depends on the functions of the language. As to the latter, there are many different opinions concerning their number. But the absolute majority of linguists agree on the point that the language is polyfunctional. For instance, R. Jackobson distinguishes the following six functions[2]: . Referential, that implies orientation onto the context; 2. Emotive, that is the function of the expression of the speaker’s will, feelings; 3. Poetic; 4. Conative, that implies orientation onto the addressee; 5. Metalingual, that is the function that provides the possibility to speak about the language by means of the language; 6. Phatic, that implies the establishment of the contact . So the emotive function, for example, implies the intention to give way to emotions that, in its turn, causes appearing of the emotionally expressive connotation. Each function gives birth to certain stylistic shadows. And it is no accident that in any living language there exist stylistic connotations with their heterogeneous character that is determined by the variety of the functions, Now going slightly back to the first point of this paragraph we would like to continue it by mentioning that the functional approach in mastering foreign languages requires first of all revealing stylistic resources of the language units of its different levels including grammatical ones. The famous Russian linguist V. Vinogradov[3] once mentioned: The stylistics of the national †¦ language includes al its sides – its phonetic system, Grammar, Word-stock and Phraseology. So far in Stylistics much attention has been paid mainly to the analysis in the field of Word stock. But the success in the late elaboration of the problems of Functional Stylistics allows the linguists to apply the stylistic analysis also to Grammar (including Morphology). 1. 2 Grammatical Stylistics or Stylistic Grammar The modern stage of the development of Linguistics is characterized by appearing of new disciplines at the meeting point of old ones. Grammar and Stylistics are closely connected with each other. As a result, a new branch of linguastylistics has already appeared. That is Grammatical Stylistics or Stylistic Grammar. The basic aim of Grammatical Stylistics implies study of stylistic means (both expressive and functional) of grammatical units. Grammatical Stylistics can be subdivided into morphological and syntactical one. But if the Stylistic means of Syntax are not usually cast upon doubt those of Morphology on contrary are. There are some rather skeptical judgments (A,M. Peshkovski, A. N. Gvozdev, A. Alonso). Acknowledging only Syntactical Stylistics the Spanish linguist Martin Alonso writes[4]: Style is not Morphology; it is connected not with the word but with the sentence. However, this understanding of the Stylistic role of Morphology according to Firsova I. cannot be considered right. [5] It narrows the limits of Stylistics. According to the fact that the object of Stylistics implies the language in the process of its usage the stylistic analysis must embrace all the levels of the language including the morphological one. The observation proves the point of view of those linguists who consider that morphological units have stylistic possibilities and must be the subject of Stylistics. The traditional idea regarding the insignificance of Stylistic recourses of Morphology is the result of insufficient study of the material. Stylistic Morphology has a number of objects of study. This is on the one hand the subsystem of the means of word-building and on the other hand the subsystem of categorical grammatical forms. In the present work we are going to deal with the second one. 1. 3 The meaning of the grammatical form In order to realize better the stylistic potential of the morphological means it is important to consider the structure of their meaning. In this work attention is going to be paid to the grammatical form. Its meaning is not something homogeneous. It can have two elements of meaning: denotative and connotative. The first implies what the grammatical form denotes itself that is its grammatical meaning. The second element implies a complication by any kind of stylistic information (of both emotional and logical character). The connotative meaning of the units of the morphological level implies their ability to evoke in our consciousness secondary associations of emotional or logical character connected with our experience. In some cases the expression of different emotions, evaluation and also of functional stylistic connotations is realized by breaking usual valency relations. What we are speaking about is transposition. That is the divergence between the traditional meaning and that which is prompted by the context on the level of Morphology. And now at this stage let us consider stylistic potential of the English noun on the basis of some grammatical categories. 1. 4 Noun in different functional styles The noun plays a very important role among the morphological resources of any language including, of course, English. That is determined according the Russian linguist Golub I. [6] by: †¢ its semantic features; †¢ quantitative predominance over other parts speech; †¢ potential figurative and expressive means. â€Å"The noun as a part of speech according to Blokh M. I. has the categorial meaning of â€Å"substance† or â€Å"thingness†[7]. It is impossible to express an idea without the latter that is why the use of nouns is an obligatory condition for any speech act. Golub I. mentions that their frequency of use fluctuates depending on the content of the text; the style it belongs to; the peculiarities of author’s intention. Style influences over the choice of words, their forms and their place in the sentence. This correlation of style and words influence greatly over the composition of linguistic units. Nouns are often very much needed in so-called bookish styles: the scientific prose, newspaper, publicistic styles and also that of official documents. That is determined by the necessity to name institutions, persons, their activities, etc. The use in the belles-lettres style is determined by the creative purpose of the author, the way he or she resolves certain stylistic tasks. Here the noun fulfils not only the informative function but also an aesthetic one. A stylistically neutral noun can be involved into the system of expressive means of the language and so it gets expressive connotation[8] . 1. 5. Stylistic Potential of the English noun 1. 5. 1 Stylistic Potential of the category of gender In Old English all nouns were classified as masculine, feminine or sometimes neuter based entirely on grammatical considerations, not on sex or the lack of it. They were referred to by pronoun declensions that also were subdivided according to grammatical gender. Since then the language has undergone a great variety of big and small changes. The system of grammatical gender was not an exception. Since the 12th to 15th centuries most of the gender distinctions has disappeared. [9] Basing on the fact that the noun in Contemporary English does not possess any special gender forms and the accompanying adjective, pronoun, article does not agree with the head –noun (Compare: Engl. a young lady, a young man, a young tree and Russ. , , ) some linguists (M. Ganshina, N. Vasilevskaia[10], A. I. Smirnitsky[11],G. Leech and J. Svartvik[12], I. G. Koshevaya[13], etc) conclude that in Modern English there is no grammatical gender. What English nouns now have is according to them natural gender1 that stipulates the sex of the referent or its lack of it. So all the nouns can be subdivided into three classes according to their lexical meaning: masculine (referred to as he) – names of male beings, feminine (referred to as she) – names of female beings, neuter (referred to as it) – names of lifeless things and abstract notions2: Masculine:father, brother, boy Feminine:mother, girl, sister Neuter:computer, lamp, beauty, friendship Now let us consider another point of view namely that of Blokh M. [14] that a bit differs from the one already mentioned above. In her book â€Å"Theoretical Grammar† she agrees that the gender division of noun in English is expressed as nounal classification (not as variable forms of words). The question remains, Blokh M. continues, whether this classification has any serious grammatical relevance. She gives some arguments that support the positive answer to this question (see below). In the conclusions to the chapter we can read: †¦ the category of gender in English is inherently semantic, i. . meaningful in so far as it reflects the actual features of the named objects. But the semantic nature of the category does not in the least make it into â€Å"non-grammatical†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ So, as we can see, Blokh M. considers the category of gender as a grammatical one. In the book she presents it by means of the binary privative opposition. (It is a type of opposition that is formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member is characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature (â€Å"mark†), while the other member is characterized by the absence of this feature. The member in which the feature is present is called â€Å"marked† or â€Å"weak† or â€Å"positive† (â€Å"+†); the member in which the feature is absent is called â€Å"unmarked†, â€Å"weak† or â€Å"negative† (â€Å"-†)). It is expressed by the correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person: he, she, and it. The category is formed by two oppositions that are related to each other on a hierarchical basis. According to the upper opposition all nouns can be subdivided into two groups: person (human) nouns [strong member] and non-person (non-human) nouns [weak member]. Within the subset of person nouns the lower opposition divides them into masculine [weak member] and feminine [strong member] (Fig. 1) Figure 1:1 Oppositional structure of the category of gender[15] (according to Blokh M. ) â€Å"+†- strong member â€Å"-†- weak member A lot of English nouns can express both feminine and masculine person genders. They are referred to as nouns of the â€Å"common gender† (i. e. doctor, teacher, president, etc. ). This capability of expressing both genders makes the category variable. On the other hand, when there is no need to indicate the sex of the person referents of these nouns, they are used neutrally as masculine. Another interesting interpretation of gender in the English language found we in â€Å"A University Grammar of English† by R. Quirk,etc[16]. Its authors say that some pronouns are gender-sensitive (the personal he, she, it and the relative who, which), but others are not (they, some, these, etc). Basing on the pattern of pronoun substitutions for singular nouns they distinguish ten gender classes ( see Fig. 2). Figure 1:2 Gender classes[17] (according to Quirk R. , Greenbaum S. Leech G, etc) |Gender classes |Examples |Pronoun substitution | |animate | | | |masculine ______ |uncle___aunt____ |who –he________________ | |feminine_______ |doctor__ |who- she________________ | |dual___________ |baby____ |who – he/she____________ | |common _______ |family__ |who-he/she/? it, which – it__ | |collective_______ |bull____ |which- it, who – they______ | |masculine higher_ animal_________ | |which – it/ (? who) – he____ | |feminine higher__ animal_________ |cow____ | | |higher organism__ | |which – it/ (? ho)-she)____ | |lower animal____ |France__ | | | |ant_____ |which – it/she____________ | | | |which-it________________ | |Inanimate | | | |inanimate_______ |Box |Which –it______________ | There are certain rules about what nouns can be regarded to as masculine, feminine and neuter. Some times they are broken in order to achieve a certain goal. At this stage it would be quite logic if we consider some of such cases grouping them in two sets where 1. A masculine or a feminine noun is used as neuter; 2. A neuter noun is used as a masculine or a feminine one. 1. A masculine or a feminine noun is used as neuter (depersonification) Dealing with this topic the Russian linguist Screbnev I. gives among several examples this one[18]: â€Å"Where did you find it? †- asked Mord Em’ly of Miss Gilliken with a satirical accent. â€Å"Who are you calling ‘it’† – demanded Mr. Barden aggressively. P’r’aps you’ll kindly call me I’m and not it† (W. Partridge) [19] So here Miss Gilliken is referred to with the pronoun it . A feminine noun becomes neuter. By doing this the speaker shows his neglect, he is probably m ocking at her and considers that she is not worth being respected. 2. A neuter noun is used as either feminine or masculine. Let us start considering the second set with animate nouns that are regarded to as neuter, namely with animals. The main purpose of such usage according to Ganshina M. , Vasilevskaya N. [20] is to create a certain image. In tales, for example, the choice of gender greatly depends on the personal qualities the author ascribes to the animal: Wait a minute,† said the monkey proudly, â€Å"I can climb. † He ran quickly up the tree and threw the rich ripe fruit to the ground. Next day the Rabbit went to see his friend the sable: she had many daughters and forest people always came to see her. [21] In general they say all nouns denoting animals can be substituted by the pronoun it and so considered neuter: We found the horse in its stable. [22] And summarizing everything M. Ganshina and V. Vasilevskaya come to the following conclusion: the lower the ani mal in the scale, the more exclusively is the noun denoting it referred to in the neuter gender. And so nouns denoting birds, fishes, insects and reptiles and generally considered s neuter: The snake crept into its hole. [23] According to G. Leech we use he or she for animals when we think of them as having the personal qualities of human beings (e. g. family pets): Have you given Rover his dog-biscuits. [24] Alice Macline singles out two types of nouns: ones that indicate the sex of the animals and ones that don’t. Let us illustrate them by the following examples[25]: Nouns indicate the sex of the animals do not indicate the sex of the animals Male FemaleCommon words bull, steer(cowcattle stallion, gelding(marehorse boarsowpig, hog ramewesheep buckdoedeer cock, rooster, capon*henchicken gandergoosegoose drakeduckduck Mentioning the case when the sex of the animal is not indicated by the noun M. Ganshina says that the nouns that stand for the larger and bolder animals are generally associated with the masculine gender, nouns that stand for the smaller and weaker with feminine:[26] Masculine: elephant, horse, dog Feminine: cat, parrot, hare. The elephant lifted his mighty trunk. The cat has upset her milk[27]. Here goes one more observation made by M. Ganshina concerning names of animals, the latter agree with the feminine pronoun also when their maternal instinct is referred to: A bird betrays her nest when trying to conceal it. The swallow was teaching her young how to fly. But in the imaginary world of Literature where there are no such traditional associations the writer is free to choose the gender to refer to his/her character in case of personification. Here M. Ganshina gives an example from O. Wilde â€Å"Happy Prince† where the author makes the swallow of masculine gender and the reed of feminine: One night there flew over the city a little Swallow. His friends had gone away to Egypt six weeks before, but he had stayed behind, for he was in love with the most beautiful Reed. He had met her early in the spring as he was flying down the river after a big yellow moth[28]. Sometimes one can refer to some thing that one feels is necessary or very important to him or her, that he or she likes very much with the pronoun he or she. By doing this one as if humanifies () the thing one adores and in this way expresses his or her affection. In terms of gender the neuter noun becomes either feminine (in case it is referred to as she) or masculine (in case it is referred to as he) as in the example given by the Russian linguist Kolpakchi M. : [29]: My typewriter must be easy to reach, he is my second self. Speaking about abstract nouns it is worth mentioning that by changing the gender the English speaker can emphasize his attitude towards it, its importance. While dealing with it in her book Kolpakchi M. A. gives the following example: Peace raised her voice†¦ She says that the author used here the possessive pronoun her (that corresponds to the personal pronoun she) not by mere accident. He or she used it on purpose imagining Peace as a woman, an unwearying fighter for peace. The choice of gender is very subjective. To illustrate this Kolpakchi M. A. gives the following two examples: Because I could not step for death, He kindly stepped for me. E. Dickenson Death was not there. It must have gone around another street. E. Hemingway Speaking about the impending death E. Dickenson, for example, made the latter masculine. Hemingway, on the contrary, referred to it with the pronoun it making it neuter. And so the reader gets the idea according to Kolpakchi M. A. that E. Dickenson imagined death as a man and Hemingway who had seen a lot of cases of death considered it an ordinary thing not personifying it. Now let us consider one more thing, namely zoomorphisms. These are the words that denote animals, birds, or fantastic creatures but are used to refer to people. The Russian linguist I. V. Arnold says that in this case they get a metaphorical emotionally colored and often offensive connotation[30]. She mentions that it can be easily noticed if we compare direct and metaphorical meanings of the following words: ass, beast, bitch, donkey, duck, mule, pig, swine, tabby, toad, wolf, worm, etc. Here are two examples with such metaphorically employed words in the context that gives Arnold I. V while considering zoomorphisms[31]: 1. I was not going to have all the old tabbies bossing her around just because she is not what they call â€Å"our class† (A. Wilson The Middle Age) In this example the speaker calls the ladies she does charity work with old tabbies. Arnold I. V mentions that in the same chapter but a bit earlier the narrator says that she (the speaker) regarded them as fools and did not hesitate to tell him so. That supports the idea that the word tabbies is used here emotionally. 2. What were you talking about to that old mare downstairs? S. Delaney) While reading the sentence you as if see the speaker pronouncing it with scorn, probably hatred. Alongside with the emotional connotation these words can also have an expressive, stylistic (colloquial) one. I. V. Arnold notices that when the words that name animals have synonyms, the latter can differ in intensi ty and character of connotation[32]. She illustrate this by giving the following examples: pig, monkey, donkeyswine, ass, ape can express irony together with affection. can sound rude, offensive. Here goes an example provided by Arnold I. V. of a zoomorphism in the context: E. g. â€Å"Don’t be such a donkey, dear† (C. P. Snow) Negative connotations according to the same Russian linguist can be intensified by means of different epithets, emphatic constructions: you impudent pup, you filthy swine, you lazy dog, that big horse of a girl[33]. Now let us go on with inanimate nouns. They can be substituted by the pronouns which, it and so treated as neuter. But sometimes they can be personified and the nouns that denote them are referred to either as belonging to the masculine or the feminine gender. Here are some traditional associations that Ganshina M and Vasilevskaya N distinguish[34]: 1. The nouns moon, earth are considered feminine, sun masculine: It is pleasant to watch the sun in his chariot of gold, and the moon in her chariot of pearl. (Wilde) The earth awoke from her winter sleep. 2. Those abstract nouns that suggest such ideas as strength, fierceness, courage, etc are considered masculine (anger, death, fear). The ones that are associated with gentleness, beauty are referred to as feminine (spring, peace, dawn). Names of countries can be substituted by either the pronoun it or she. So they can be considered either neuter or feminine. The choice depends on their use. According to Leech G. if the country is seen as a political or cultural unit rather than as geographical unit it is treated as feminine: Last year France increased her exports by 10 per cent. [35] Otherwise it is treated as neuter: Ireland is an island, on three sides it is washed by the Atlantic Ocean1 In sport the name of a country according to Quirk R. can stand for the team that represent her and be referred to as a personal collective noun: France have improved their chance of winning the cup. [36] In this class Quirk also places ships and other entities towards which an affectionate attitude is expressed by a personal substitute (ship, boat, steamer, car, etc): What a lovely ship. What is she called? He also mentions that a proud owner of a sports car may refer to it as she or perhaps as he if the owner is female. When a nonpersonal abstract noun (neuter) in the sentence stands for a personal one it becomes he (masculine) or she (femenine). The Russian linguist Arnold I. V. entions that in case of transposition of nonpersonal abstract nouns (used as personal) some emotional or expressive connotations appear[37]. She gives the following examples: The chubby little eccentricity::a chubby eccentric child; He is a disgrace to his family::he is a disgraceful son; The old oddity ::a n odd old person. From the point of view of sociology it is worth mentioning the sexist language here while speaking about the gender. It can be defined as â€Å"speech and writing that make unnecessary distinctions based on sex† (A. Macline). Some people do not like using occupational terms that show the sex of the person who is doing the work. They substitute them for nonsexist equivalents[38] : TraditionalNonsexist stewardessflight attendant postmanpostal worker chairman chairperson or chair salesladysalesperson or salesclerk According to â€Å"Book of English Usage†[39] some of the most interesting changes that have taken place in the English language over the last 30 years have been driven by the desire to avoid sexism in the language. This reform movement differs from most previous ones based on a desire for English to be more logical, more efficient in expression. The book says that the reforms involving gender are explicitly political in intent and represent a quest for social justice rather than a wish for more consistent logic. The author of this chapter considers that this movement has been remarkably successful by historical standards. A glance at any newspaper or five minutes in front of the television news will produce evidence to show that people are changing their language to accommodate concerns about fairness to both sexes. It is undeniable that large numbers of men and women are uncomfortable using constructions that have been criticized for being sexist. Since there is little to be gained by offending people in one’s audience, it makes sense to educate oneself about the issues involved and to try to accommodate at least some of these concerns. The use of the sexist language can sometimes lead to ambiguity. There is an example with the term policemen in the book. While using it, it is not clear whether the speaker is excluding women police officers or whether he or she allows the term stand for the entire police force. Another problem is that not everyone perceives the sexist language the same way. People have different levels of sensitivity on these matters and everyone must find a level that suits him or her. Some people not object to using the generic he, but avoid the generic use of compounds ending in –man. Some are not comfortable using the form fellow, as in fellow colleagues, to refer to women. That complicates the matter. Finally, it is important to remember that avoiding sexist terms and constructions is no guarantee that what one has written will be free of gender bias. Sexist stereotypes, such as the assumption that all nurses are women or that all executive are men, can seem like the status quo – the way the world is- especially when one is distracted by a deadline or concerned about some other feature of his or her writing, such as organization or its tone. Sexist assumptions can be insidious. A headline that reads â€Å"Allegations Embroil Financier and Woman† may seem innocuous at first, but if the article shows the woman to be a financier as well, one have to wonder about the politics of the headline editor, who has assumed that a financier must naturally be a man and that a woman’s professional status is somehow not worth mentioning[40]. . 5. 2ylistic Potential of the category of number The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form to the singular one. The strong member is the plural. Basing on the quantitative characteristics of the nouns two groups can be distinguished: countable and uncountab le. Countable nouns refer to people, places, or things that can be counted (one dollar/two dollars, one house, two houses). They [these countable nouns] can always be made plural usually by adding â€Å"s† or some other variation of the plural ending (student(s), countri(es), child(ren). A few words are the same in both the singular and plural forms (deer, sheep). Uncountable nouns often refer to food, beverages, substances, or abstractions (meat, tea, steel, information); some uncountable nouns (but not the abstract ones) can be made countable by adding a â€Å"count frame† in front of them (two gallons of milk, six blocks of ice, a bar of soap, a bunch of celery). The nouns of the second group are treated as either singular or plural and are usually referred to as singularia tantum (peace, love, friendship) [only singular] and pluralia tantum (scissors, trousers, spectacles) [only plural]. M. I. Blokh[41] refers to them as absolute singular and the absolute plural. Unfortunately, there is not clear-cut distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable even without adding count frames. For example, as an uncountable noun, experience refers to abstract knowledge or skill that can be gained by observing or participating in events. As a singular or plural countable noun (experience/experiences), the word â€Å"experience† refers to a particular instance (or instances) of participation in events. Similarly, the uncountable noun â€Å"glass† is a substance made from silicates; â€Å"a glass† (singular) is something you drink from; and â€Å"glasses† (plural) are frames containing lenses that correct imperfect vision[42]. There are other exceptions to the countable/uncountable distinction as well. Moreover, a noun that is countable in one’s native language may be uncountable in English, and vice-versa. For example, â€Å"watch† is countable in English but uncountable in Russian. However, as long as we are aware of these differences they probably will not cause us much difficulty. The Guide to Grammar and Writing [43] says that a special situation exists when a subject seems not to agree with its predicate. For instance, when we want each student to see his or her counselor (and each student is assigned to only one counselor), but we want to avoid that â€Å"his or her† construction by pluralizing, do we say â€Å"Students must see their counselors† or â€Å"Students must see their counselor†? The singular counselor is necesssary to avoid the implication that students have more than one counselor apiece. Do we say â€Å"Many sons dislike their father or fathers†? We don't mean to suggest that the sons have more than one father, so we use the singular father. Theodore Bernstein, in Dos, Don'ts and Maybes of English Usage, says that â€Å"Idiomatically the noun applying to more than one person remains in the singular when (a) it represents a quality or thing possessed in common (â€Å"The audience's curiosity was aroused†); or (b) it is an abstraction (â€Å"The judges applied their reason to the problem†), or (c) it is a figurative word (â€Å"All ten children had a sweet tooth†) (203). Sometimes good sense will have to guide you. We might want to say â€Å"Puzzled, the children scratched their head† to avoid the image of multi-headed children, but â€Å"The audience rose to their foot† is plainly ridiculous and about to tip over. In â€Å"The boys moved their car/cars,† the plural would indicate that each boy owned a car, the singular that the boys (together) owned one car (which is quite possible). It is also possible that each boy owned more than one car. One should be prepared for such situations, and consider carefully the implications of using either the singular or the plural. One might have to avoid the problem by going the opposite direction of pluralizing: moving things to the singular and talking about what each boy did[44]. There are cases when the opposition of the singular to the plural is neutralized when a change of meaning, attitude is involved. Let us consider some examples organizing them in the following groups: A) countable: the plural stands for the singular and vice versa B) Countable nouns: repetition groups C) Uncountable nouns: the plural form results in expressive transposition 1. ountable: the plural stands for the singular and vice versa The example below shows that such nouns as committee can be substituted either with the singular pronoun it or the plural pronoun they (without changing the number in the noun). R. Quirk and other authors of â€Å"A University Grammar of English† say that the differenc e reflects a difference in attitude: the singular stresses the non-personal collectivity of the group and the plural the personal individuality within the group: 1. The committee has met and it has rejected the proposal. The committee have met and they have rejected the proposal [45] Here are similar examples: 2. The family were gathered round the table. 3. The government are unanimous in disapproving the move of the opposition. In the subsequent cases (when the plural implies the singular and vice versa) the relation of the whole to its parts comes to the foreground. The varieties of transfer (‘whole –part’ and ‘part – whole’) are called synecdoche, which itself is the simplest case of metonymy: 4. â€Å"How dare he talk like that to ladies? † (there is only one lady present) 5. â€Å"Now what’s that? Reading books instead of working? † (the delinquent is certainly reading one book at the moment) 6. â€Å"This is what the student is supposed to know† (every student, a number of students, all those who study the subject: the singular stands for the plural)[46] 2. Countable nouns: repetition groups Indefinitely large quantity can be intensely presented by means of repetition groups. The nouns in them can be used either in the plural or in the singular: There were trees and trees all around us. I lit cigarette after cigarette. This variety of plural can be considered as a peculiar analytical form in the marginal sphere of the category of number[47]. (C)Uncountable nouns: the plural form results in expressive transposition As it has been mentioned above the English noun has both the singular and the plural forms. But there is a restriction on this general rule: proper, abstract, material nouns have just one form. And if the restriction is ignored some particular meanings, connotations are restricted. The plural form of the following nouns in bold type intensifies large quantity: E. g. : the sands of the desert; †¢ the fruits of the toil; †¢ Waters on a starry night are beautiful and fair. (W. Wordsworth) †¢ But where are the snows of yesterday? (F. Villon) It plays not the last role in making the description more graphic. M. I. Blokh calls it  "descriptive uncountable plural†. 1. 5. 3 Stylistic Potential of the category of case This category is expressed in the English language by the opposition of the genitive or possessive case to the common case. The strong member is the first one. Functionally, those two case systems relate to one another in a very peculiar way. If the common form is not restricted in its uses, the genitive one is. It is restricted to the functions that have a parallel expression by prepositional constructions. To illustrate the complex nature of the genitive Blokh M. distinguishes the following basic semantic types of the genitive[48] : †¢ â€Å"the genitive of possessor† E. g. : Christine’s living room (the living room belongs to Christine), Dad’s earnings, Kate and Jerry’s grandparents. †¢ â€Å"the genitive of integer† (â€Å"organic possession†) E. g. : Jane’s busy hands (the busy hands as part of Jane’s person), Patrick’s voice, the hotel’s lobby. †¢ â€Å"the genitive of agent† E. g. : the great man’s arrival (the great man arrives), Peter’s insistence, the hotel’s competitive position. â€Å"the genitive of patient† E. g. : the champion’s sensational defeat (the champion is defeated), Erick’s final expulsion. †¢ â€Å"the genitive of destinationâ₠¬  E. g. : women’s footwear (footwear for women), children’s verses, a fisher’s tent. In some postmodified noun phrases it is possible to use an ’s genitive by affixing the inflection to the final part of the postmodification rather than to the head noun itself. Thus: The teacher’s room The teacher of music’s room This group genitive is regularly used with such posmodifications as in someone else’s house, the heir apparent’s name, as well as prepositional phrases. Other examples involve coordinations: n hour and a half’s discussion a week or so’s sunshine. [49] The group genitive is not normally acceptable following a clause, though in colloquial use one sometimes hears examples like[50]: Old man what-do-you-call-him’s house has been painted A man I know’s son has been injured in a railway accident. In normal use, especially in writing, such s-genetives would be replaced by of-genitive: The son of a man I know has been injured in a railway accident. Now let us consider the combination â€Å"of + genitive case† (a friend of my brother’s) or â€Å"of + possessive pronoun† (a friend of mine). According to Ganshina M. , Vasilevskaya N. t has usually partitive, denoting â€Å"one of†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Here are some examples[51]: He is a friend of my brother’s (= one of my brother’s friends); It is a book of mine (=one of my book); It is a novel of Galsworthy’s (= one of his novels). The say that sometimes this meaning can be lost and the construction acquires emotional force (denoting praise, pleasure, displeasure, etc) or becomes purely descriptive: We all admired that clever remark of his. That cottage of my friend’s is surrounded by a beautiful garden. It was really surprising that he had been able to find this small island of ours at all. Is she a particular friend of yours? A friend of the doctor’s has arrived[52]. In Modern English the use of the genitive case is restricted chiefly to nouns denoting living beings. In the following examples provided by Ganshina M. , Vasilevskaya N. the use of the genitive case is closely connected with personification:[53] 1. with the nouns sun, moon, earth: The sun’s (his) rays are very hot at noon in summer. The moon’s (her) shadow swept over the lake. And each flower and herb on Earth’s dark breast rose from the dreams of its wintry rest. (Shelly) 2. with the nouns ship, boat, vessel The ship’s crew were all asleep. 3. with the names of countries: Moscow is Russian’s greatest scientific and cultural centre. 4. with abstract nouns (especially in poetry) Night’s candles are burnt out, and jocund day stands tiptoe on the misty mountain top. But that does not exhaust the stylistic potential of the genitive case. It was mentioned in  «  » by Arnold[54] that the use of the inflected form is characteristic of newspaper headlines not only because of space economy but also because this form emphasizes the attribute. Comparing Hollywood’s Studios Empty with The Studios of Hollywood empty they prefer the first variant. Now let us consider one more point of view regarding the ’s and of-phrase. E. G. Rappoport[55] says that ’s expresses indissoluble connection between the whole and its part. Of ,on the contrary, characterizes such a relation between the whole and its part when the latter is understood as something that exists on its own. The author gives then an example from the novel by Galsworthy â€Å"The White Monkey†. Michael and Soms are waiting for Fleur’s baby to be delivered: Michael had his right arm tight across his chest, Soames his left. They formed a pattern, thus side by side. (Both were rather strained. ) Then Soames says, â€Å"Listen! †Sounds – different – confused! Michael’s hand seized something, gripped it hard; it was cold, thin – the hand of Soames. So Mike at first perceived Soames’ hand (the hand of Soames) as an object (something) . It doesn’t come to him at once that he has gripped his father’s-in-law hand. Michael’s hand, on the contrary, represents a closer unity and it is equal to Michael. 1. 5. 4 Stylistic Potential of the category of article determination The category of article determination is not universally manifestable. The categorial forms â€Å"determination-indetermination† are neutralized when either the definite or indefinite article is omitted although it should precede the noun or the noun group. But the neutralization (absence of the article) is stylistically heterogeneous. Most depends on what sublanguage the text belongs, on the circumstances of communication. It is known that absence of articles is typical of headlines to newspaper columns (the sublanguage used in newspaper headlines is jocularly called Headlinese – by analogy with Chinese, Portuguese, etc)[56]: Prime Minister Talks on Middle East Events Police Seek Mystery Assailant Miner Sentenced to Death Picket Tried to Hold up Train Skrebnev I. M. gives also the following example that demonstrates absence: Quadruped. Graminivorous. Forty teeth, namely twenty-four grinders, four eye-teeth and twelve incisive. Sheds coat in the spring; in marshy countries sheds hoofs too. Hoofs hard but requiring to be shod with iron. Age known by marks in mouth†. That is an extract from the speech of an exemplary pupil of the famous â€Å"school of facts†, Bitzer by name (Hard Times by Charles Dickens). The boy, on being asked to define a horse, talks as if he were asked to reproduce word for word the text of some reference book (in books of this kind articles are often omitted). So there is no article in particular types of abbreviated language[57]: †¢ newspaper headlines (Girls dies in Fire) †¢ dictionary deginitions (Crystal = substance solidified in geometrical form) †¢ instructions (Read instructions first. Check plug. Select correct speed. ) †¢ telegrams (Sign contract immediately. Letter follows. ) Sometimes articles are omitted in careless colloquial speech. To demonstrate this Skrebnev I remembers the well-known scene I of Pygmalion by B. Shaw where one of the by-standers says in Eliza Doolittle’s defence: Girl never said a word to him (instead of The girl†¦) Articles are also eliminated in many Pidgins as well as in a number of languages like, for example, Russian. â€Å"Bring me dog†, would possibly be more meaningful in context of the moment, than in some literary sense[58]. Article causes a considerable amount of confusion for speakers of most of the world’s other languages, who seem to get on rather well without them. Even between British and American usage one finds subtle differences in nuance or emphasis. For example, Americans usually say someone is in the hospital, much as they could be at the bank or in the park. To the British this sounds like there is only one hospital, just as they would say a child is at school or a criminal in prison. This is because they are thinking more of the primary activities that take place within those institutions rather than the buildings in which they are housed. If, however, you are merely visiting one of these places, you are at the hospital, at the school or at the prison. Considering this category in â€Å"Theoretical grammar† M. I. Blokh distinguishes two levels of opposition. On the first level the definite article is contrasted with the indefinite and zero-article being the strong member because of its identifying and individualizing function, while the other forms are referred to as the weak member as they leave the feature (â€Å"identification†) unmarked. On the second level the two types of generalization are contrasted: relative and absolute. The first one is interpreted as the strong member (the indefinite article and the meaningful absence of the article as its analogue with uncountable nouns and nouns in the plural); the second one accordingly as the weak member of the opposition (the meaningful absence of the article). (Fig 1:3) Fig. 1:3 The category of article determination (according to Blokh M. ) Article determination IdentificationNon-identification The +A (N)/? – Relative generalizationAbsolute generalization (â€Å"Classification†)(â€Å"Abstraction†) A (N)/ ? 1 + ? 2 – The article may occasionally be used with an uncharacteristic nounal collocation. It is worth considering now some of such cases starting with instances that involve the indefinite article: According to Blokh M[59] it†¦ †¢ can be used with a nounal collocation of normally individualizing meaning: After all, you’ve got a best side and a worst side of yourself and it’s no good showing the worst side and harping on it. (A. Christie) †¢ It may occasionally be used with a unique referent noun: Ted Latimer from beyond her murmured: â€Å"The sun here isn’t a real sun†. The choice of the adjective in this case is rather subjective. To illustrate this Kolpakchi M. A. gives the following example. The moon that seemed to Onegin foolish, can seem to somebody else mocking or ominous. 60] †¢ Being used before a proper name it can indicate a person whose exact identity has not been established: There is a Miss Frost waiting for you[61]. †¢ Being used before a proper noun according to Arnold I. V. it can create an evaluative m etaphorical connotation: I do not claim to be a Caruso=I don’t think that I sing well; I do not claim to be Caruso=I don’t say that my name is Caruso[62]. The connotation can be either positive or negative. In the following example also provided by Arnold I. V. the evaluation is undoubtfully positive: A century ago there may have been no Leibnitz, but there was a Gauss, a Faraday and a Darwin. (N. Viner Cybernetics) The indefinite article in this case emphasizes appreciation of their role in the development of science. However, very often when the indefinite article stands before a proper name of an undistinguished person it may render a negative connotation (it can point out, for example, to some demerits,etc). Here Arnold I. V. gives the following example: He was not a Bagster (GGreen The main point). -He does not want to be like Bagster. Being used before a proper noun the indefinite article can reveal one more meaning, namely belonging to a famous family. In this case it always reveals an evaluative connotation: Elisabeth was a Tudor – Elisabeth possessed some family traits of the noble kin. Here go some other cases that involve the definite article: Proper nouns are names of particular people, places, and things (John F. Kennedy, New York City, Notre Dame Cathedral), and for that reason they are inherently definite. Nevertheless, the definite article is not used with most singular proper nouns. For example, if you are referring to your friend George, you wouldn't say â€Å"The George and I went to a movie last night. † The only times â€Å"the† is used with a name like this are: a) when the speaker wants to be emphatic, as in â€Å"the Elizabeth Taylor† (to emphasize that you are talking about the famous actress, and not about another woman with the same name)[63]. Here goes another example provided by BlokhM Know my partner? Old Robinson. Yes, the Robinson. Don’t you know? The notorious Robinson. (J Conrad Lord Jim) Being used with a proper noun, it refers to one particular individual[64]: Is he the Stephen Spielberg, the film director? b) when the speaker is actually using the name as a common noun, as in â€Å"the George that I introduced you to last night† (the real meaning of this phrase is â€Å"the man named George†¦ â€Å"). Plural names, on the other hand, are always preceded by the: the Johnsons, the Bahamas, etc[65]. Now let us consider two other cases that involve the zero article: †¢ It may be occasionally used with an ordinary concrete noun the emantic nature of which stands in sharp contradiction to the idea of uncountable generalization[66]: The glasses had a habit of slipping down her button nose which did not have enough bridge to hold them up (S. M. Disney) †¢ The Russian linguist Arnold I. V. m entions that together with countable nouns it makes them abstract and considers the following example: There head falls forward, fatigued at evening, And dreams of home, Waving from window, spread of welcome, Kissing of wife under single sheet; But waking sees Bird-flocks nameless to him, through doorway voices Of new men making another love. In this poem by V. Oden Wanderer extreme tiredness of the Wanderer is rendered according to Arnold I. V. by means of abstract images. This fuzziness helps the reader to feel that home and happiness are just a dream. In all these cases that illustrate the peculiar cases involving the article traces of transposition can be seen. Chapter 2 Analysis of examples taken from fiction on the basis of considered theoretical phenomena Being a practical one Chapter2 illustrates the points mentioned in the previous theoretical chapter by means of about 200 instances. The latter have been taken mostly from works of English and American authors that belong to the belles-lettres style (tales, poetry, short stories). The aim of this chapter is to put the considered theory into practice showing the way the phenomena have been dealt with work out. All the examples were considered in the following way: †¢ Examples regarding the category of gender (2. 1) Here we distinguish two groups: A. A neuter noun used as feminine; B. A neuter noun used as masculine, explaining the purpose of changing the gender. †¢ Examples regarding the category of number (2. 2) In this paragraph we consider some cases when proper, abstract, material nouns are used in the plural form. †¢ Examples regarding the category of case (2. 3) Here we consider cases when inanimate nouns take the s-genitive. †¢ Examples regarding the category of article determination (2. 4) In this paragraph we consider cases when the article is used in the linguistic environment that is alien to it. 1. Analysis of the examples regarding the category of gender As it has been already mentioned in the theoretical chapter the gender division of noun in English is expressed as nounal classification (not as variable forms of words) which has grammatical relevance. The category is expressed by the correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person singular (he, she, it). That is why the latter accompanies all the considered nouns in the examples of this paragraph. Those that are referred to as he are traditionally considered as masculine, and so accordingly there can be distinguished also feminine (referred to as she) and neuter (referred to as it). There are certain rules about what nouns can be regarded to as masculine, feminine or neuter. Sometimes they are broken in order to achieve a certain goal. Such cases are considered in this paragraph, namely when a normally considered neuter noun is used as feminine or masculine. All the examples are divided accordingly into two groups which are considered separately: 1. A neuter noun is used as feminine 2. A neuter noun is used as masculine. In each subset we consider (A) cases where the choice of gender is determined by some traditional associations and (B) examples where this choice is free. It is also worth mentioning that all the subsequent instances are connected with personification. 1. A neuter noun is used as feminine A. Traditional choice of gender In the following example the word vessel (that is neutrally referred to as it) is accompanied by the possessive pronoun her that corresponds to the personal pronoun she. This is actually one of the ways of expressing an affectionate attitude towards any kind of vessel, vehicle, which is traditionally, associated with the personal pronoun she: ? There lies the port; the vessel puffs her sail†¦. (A. Tennyson The lady of Sharlott) The same thing will illustrate the following example: ? And why not? he would have asked. If he hadn’t watched every penny all his life he wouldn’t be the owner of the fine ship lying alongside now. What if she was only a small coastal cargo-ship grossing a mere 2053 tons? She was rated Al at Lloyd’s, she would be sailing within the hour with a full cargo, and she was his. He owned and commanded her. (Porteus R. S. A Deal with Father) Here the word of the neuter gender ship is referred to as she and so it becomes feminine. We see that the owner is very proud that â€Å"he owned and commanded her† (personification in this case emphasizes this). Here goes another example from the same short story where the word ship is also used as a feminine noun: ? In the first grey streaks of dawn they sighted her – a pitiful, crippled thing , so far down by the head that the bigger seas broke clean over her foredeck. Captain Wellshot knew her well. Only a few hours ago she had been a fast modern cargo-ship of 10,000 tons, the latest addition to the Greek line. Now she lay with bowed head, wallowing sluggishly as if she no longer had the energy to rise to the seas, content to let them wash over her till they engulfed her completely. From a seaman’s point of view she was nothing but a menace to navigation until she took the final plunge. (Porteous R. S. A Deal with Father) The image of the sinking ship is as if personified here (Captain Wellshot knew her well†¦ She lay with bowed head†¦ ) In the subsequent example the word Moon (that is neutrally referred to as it) is also accompanied by the possessive pronoun her that corresponds to the personal pronoun she. That has a lot to do with personification that is also realized by capitalizing the word Moon and by using with it the participle foretelling (that usually used with animate nouns): ? I see the old Moon in her lap, foretelling The coming-on of rain and squally blast †¦ (Coleridge S. T. Dejection: An Ode) Traditionally such abstract nouns that suggest such ideas as gentleness, beauty, etc are associated with the feminine gender. The subsequent three sentences with examples illustrate this. In the first one the word autumn that is normally referred to as it is substituted by the personal pronoun she. So being a neuter noun it is used as feminine. That makes us imagine a nice woman who â€Å"gave golden fruit to every garden†: The Autumn gave golden fruit to every garden, but to the Giant’s garden she gave none. (Oscar Wilde The Selfish Giant) In the second one the word spring (that is neutrally referred to as it) is substituted by the personal pronoun she and is also referred to by the possessive pronoun her. The personification is realized not only by making the word feminine but also by using it in the possessive case by means of ’s (that is usually used with animate nouns) and by applying to it such words as pantings, kisses, to breathe that are characteristic of human being: ? If spring’s voluptuous pantings when she breathes, Her first sweet kisses, have been dear to me†¦ (Shelley P. B. Alastor or the spirit of solitude) In the third sentence the word Nature (that is neutrally referred to as it) is accompanied by the possessive pronoun her that corresponds to the personal pronoun she. The personification in this case is realized not only by it but also by capitalizing the considered noun and by the accompanying words wedding garment, shroud that are employed metaphorically: ? O Lady! We receive but what we give, And in our life alone does Nature live: Ours is her wedding-garment, ours her shroud! (Coleridge S. T. Dejection: An Ode) B. Free choice of gender In the imaginary world of literature when there are no such traditional associations, the choice of gender greatly depends on the personal qualities the author ascribes to the animal or to any object that becomes alive. The personification in the sentence below is realized not only by referring to the considered noun with the possessive pronoun her but also capitalizing it and by applying to it such phrases as to bow one’s head, to mind one’s charge (that are normally performed by human beings): ? The Cloud descended and the Lily bow’d her modest head And went to mind her numerous charge among the verdant grass. (W. Blake The Book of Thel) The neuter noun snow is referred in the following example by means of the possessive pronoun her that corresponds to the personal pronoun she. The change of the neuter gender into feminine results in personification. The latter is also realized by means of capitalization of the noun and the metaphorically applied to it noun cloak: The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the Trees silver. (Oscar Wilde The Nightingale and the Rose) Personification in the example below is realized by referring to the noun duck as she and also by making her speak as people do (â€Å"You will never be in the best society unless you can stand on your heads,† she kept saying to them). The neuter noun duck is used as feminine. As a result an image of a nice mother who was teaching her children has been created: ? The little ducks were swimming about in the pond, looking just like a lot of yellow canaries, and their mother [duck], who was pure white with real red legs, was trying to teach them how to stand on their heads in the water. You will never be in the best society unless you can stand on your heads,† she kept saying to them; and every now and then she showed them how it was done. (Oscar Wilde The Devoted Friend ) In the following two sentences the word Nightingale (which belongs to the neuter gender) becomes feminine by referring to it as she, her. Personification in this case is also realized by some metaphorically employed words that accompany the considered noun such as to wonder, to understand, to think. As a result the image of a kind creature that is not indifferent to the grief of others is created: ? From her nest in the Holm-oak tree the Nightingale heard him, and she looked out through the leaves and wondered. But the Nightingale underst